The history of science covers the development of science from ancient times to the blogger.come is an empirical, theoretical, and procedural knowledge about the universe, produced by scientists who formulate testable explanations and predictions based on their observations. There are three major branches of science: natural, social, and formal.. The earliest roots of science can be traced A thesis or paper, reporting substantive and original research, is required for the MA. The MA paper or thesis is written with the guidance of a committee of three members of the faculty. The final examination for the Master's degree is an oral examination, administered by the faculty committee An overview of some of the top-ranked doctoral history programs is given below. University of Pennsylvania. The University of Pennsylvaniaís doctoral history program is a small program with an impressive reputation of excellence and in placement of students in employment after graduation
The history of science and the history of the scientific disciplines
The history of science covers the development of science from ancient times to the present, doctoral full history scientific thesis. Doctoral full history scientific thesis is an empiricaltheoreticaland procedural knowledge about the universedoctoral full history scientific thesis by scientists who formulate testable explanations and predictions based on their observations.
The earliest roots of science can be traced to Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in around to BCE. Aided by translations of Greek texts, the Hellenistic worldview was preserved and absorbed into the Arabic-speaking Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age. Natural philosophy was transformed during the Scientific Revolution in 16th- to 17th-century Europe, [8] [9] as new ideas doctoral full history scientific thesis discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions.
The chemical revolution of the 18th century, for instance, introduced new quantitative methods and measurements for chemistry. In prehistoric times, knowledge and technique were passed from generation to generation in an oral tradition. For doctoral full history scientific thesis, the domestication of maize for agriculture has been dated to about 9, doctoral full history scientific thesis, years ago in southern Mexicobefore the development of writing systems.
The oral tradition of preliterate societies had several features, the first of which was its fluidity. There were no archives or reports. This fluidity was closely related to the practical need to explain and justify a present state of affairs. They were also prone to identify causes with beginnings, thereby providing a historical origin with an explanation.
There was also a reliance on a " medicine man " or " wise woman " for healing, knowledge of divine or demonic causes of diseases, and in doctoral full history scientific thesis extreme cases, for rituals such as exorcismdivinationsongs, and incantations.
The development of writing enabled humans to store and communicate knowledge across generations with much greater accuracy. Its invention was a prerequisite for the development of philosophy and later science in ancient times.
Starting in around BCE, the ancient Egyptians developed a numbering system that was decimal in character and had orientated their knowledge of geometry to solving practical problems such as those of surveyors and builders. The right triangle and other rules of geometry were used to build rectilinear structures, and the post and lintel architecture of Egypt.
Egypt was also a center of alchemy research for much of the Mediterranean. Based on the medical papyri written in the — BCE, the ancient Egyptians believed that disease was mainly caused by the invasion of bodies by evil forces or spirits. The Edwin Smith papyruswritten at about the same time, contains a surgical manual for treating wounds, fractures, and dislocations.
The Egyptians believed that the effectiveness of their medicines depended on the preparation and administration under appropriate rituals. Lloyd, [33] played a significant role in the development of this methodology.
The ancient Egyptians even developed an official calendar that contained twelve months, thirty days each, and five days at the end of the year. The ancient Mesopotamians had extensive knowledge about the chemical properties of clay, sand, metal ore, bitumenstone, and other natural materials, and applied this knowledge to practical use in manufacturing potteryfaienceglass, soap, metals, lime plasterand waterproofing, doctoral full history scientific thesis.
Metallurgy required knowledge about the properties of metals. Nonetheless, the Mesopotamians seem to have had little interest in gathering information about the natural world for the mere sake of gathering information and were far more interested in studying the manner in which the gods had ordered the universe. Biology of non-human organisms was generally only written about in the context of mainstream academic disciplines.
Animal physiology was studied extensively for the purpose of divination ; the anatomy of the liverwhich was seen as an important organ in haruspicydoctoral full history scientific thesis, was studied in particularly intensive detail, doctoral full history scientific thesis. Animal behavior was also studied for divinatory purposes. Most information about the training and domestication of animals was probably transmitted orally without being written down, but one text dealing with the training of horses has survived.
The ancient Mesopotamians had no distinction between "rational science" and magic. These physicians, who could be either male or female, also dressed wounds, set limbs, and performed simple surgeries. The ancient Mesopotamians also practiced prophylaxis and took measures to prevent the spread of disease.
The Mesopotamian cuneiform tablet Plimptondating to the eighteenth century BCE, records a number of Pythagorean triplets 3,4,5 5,12, In Babylonian astronomyrecords of the motions of the starsplanetsand the moon are left on thousands of clay tablets created by scribes. Even today, astronomical periods identified by Mesopotamian proto-scientists are still widely used in Western calendars such as the solar year and the lunar month.
Using these data they developed arithmetical methods to compute the changing length of daylight in the course of the year and to predict the appearances and disappearances of the Moon and planets and eclipses of the Sun and Moon.
Only a few astronomers' names are known, such as that of Kidinnua Chaldean astronomer and mathematician. Kiddinu's value for the solar year is in use for today's calendars.
Babylonian astronomy was "the first and highly successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena. Aaboe, "all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the Hellenistic world, in India, in Islam, and in the West—if not indeed all subsequent endeavour in the exact sciences—depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways.
To the Babylonians and other Near Eastern cultures, messages from the gods or omens were concealed in all natural phenomena that could be deciphered and interpreted by those who are adept. Mathematical achievements from Mesopotamia had some influence on the development of mathematics in India, doctoral full history scientific thesis, and there were confirmed transmissions of mathematical ideas between India and China, which were bidirectional.
The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the Indus Valley Civilization c.
The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportionconsidered favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They designed a ruler—the Mohenjo-daro ruler —whose unit of length approximately 1. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length.
Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata —in his Aryabhatiya introduced the sine function in trigonometry. In CE, Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction. Arabic translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the Islamic worldintroducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic world by the 9th century. In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the "founder of mathematical analysis ".
In the Tantrasangraha treatise, Nilakantha Somayaji 's updated the Aryabhatan model for the interior planets, Mercury, and Venus and the equation that he specified for the center of these planets was more accurate than the ones in European or Islamic astronomy until the time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th century. The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedasreligious literature of India. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.
Some of the earliest linguistic activities can be found in Iron Age India 1st millennium BCE with the analysis of Sanskrit doctoral full history scientific thesis the purpose of the correct recitation and interpretation of Vedic texts. The most notable grammarian of Sanskrit was Pāṇini c.
Inherent doctoral full history scientific thesis his analytic approach are the concepts of the phonemethe morpheme and the root. The Tolkāppiyam text, doctoral full history scientific thesis, composed in the early centuries of the common era, [58] is a comprehensive text on Tamil grammar, which includes sutras on orthography, phonology, etymology, morphology, doctoral full history scientific thesis, semantics, prosody, sentence structure and the significance of context in language.
Findings from Neolithic graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto-dentistry among an early farming culture. An ancient Indian treatise on statecrafteconomic policy and military strategy by Kautilya [60] and Viṣhṇugupta[61] who are traditionally identified with Chāṇakya c. In this treatise, the behaviors and relationships of the people, the King, the State, the Government Superintendents, Courtiers, Enemies, Invaders, and Corporations are analysed and documented.
Roger Boesche describes the Arthaśāstra as "a book of political realism, a book analysing how the political world does work and not very often stating how it ought to work, a book that frequently discloses to a king what calculating and sometimes brutal measures he must carry out to preserve the state and the common good. From the earliest the Chinese used a positional decimal system on counting boards in order to calculate. To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right.
The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e. four thousand two hundred seven. No symbol was used for zero, doctoral full history scientific thesis. By the 1st century BCE, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art included methods for extracting higher order roots by Horner's method and solving linear equations and by Pythagoras' doctoral full history scientific thesis. Cubic equations were solved in the Tang dynasty and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in CE by Ch'in Chiu-shao.
Pascal's triangle for binomial coefficients was described around by Jia Xian. Although the first attempts at an axiomatisation of geometry appear in the Mohist canon in BCE, Liu Hui developed algebraic methods in geometry in the 3rd century CE and also calculated pi to 5 significant figures.
Astronomical observations from China constitute the longest continuous sequence from any civilization and include records of sunspots records from BCEsupernovaslunar and solar eclipses. By the 12th century, they could reasonably accurately make predictions of eclipses, but the knowledge of this was lost during the Ming dynasty, so that the Jesuit Matteo Ricci gained much favour in by his predictions.
From antiquity, the Chinese used an equatorial system for describing the skies and a star map from was drawn using a cylindrical Mercator projection. The use of an armillary sphere is recorded from the 4th century BCE and a sphere permanently mounted in equatorial axis from 52 BCE.
In CE Zhang Heng used water power to rotate the sphere in real time, doctoral full history scientific thesis.
This included rings for the meridian and ecliptic. By they had incorporated the principles of the Arab torquetum. In the Song Empire — of Imperial ChinaChinese scholar-officials unearthed, studied, and cataloged ancient artifacts.
To better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented a seismometer in CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific cardinal or ordinal direction. There are many notable contributors to early Chinese disciplines, inventions, and practices throughout the ages.
One of the best examples would be the medieval Song Chinese Shen Kuo —a polymath and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic -needle compass used for navigationdiscovered the concept of true northimproved the design of the astronomical gnomonarmillary spheresight tube, and clepsydraand described the use of drydocks to repair boats.
After observing the natural process of the inundation of silt and the find of marine doctoral full history scientific thesis in the Taihang Mountains hundreds of miles from the Pacific OceanShen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or geomorphology.
He also adopted a theory of gradual climate change in regions over time, after observing petrified bamboo found underground at Yan'anShaanxi province. If not for Shen Kuo's writing, [68] the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with the inventor of movable type printingBi Sheng — Shen's contemporary Su Song — was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a treatise related to botanyzoologymineralogyand metallurgyand had erected a large astronomical clocktower in Kaifeng city in To operate the crowning armillary spherehis clocktower featured an escapement mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting chain drive.
The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, early seismological detectors Zhang Heng in the 2nd centurythe water-powered celestial globe Zhang Hengmatchesthe independent invention of the decimal systemdry dockssliding calipersthe double-action piston pumpcast ironthe blast furnacethe iron ploughthe multi-tube seed drillthe wheelbarrowthe suspension bridgethe winnowing machinethe rotary fanthe parachutenatural gas as fuel, the raised-relief mapthe propellerthe crossbowand a solid fuel rocketthe multistage rocketthe horse collaralong with contributions in logicastronomymedicineand other fields.
However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into "modern science", doctoral full history scientific thesis. According to Needham, it may have been the religious and philosophical framework of Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature:. It was not that there was no order in nature for the Chinese, but rather that it was not an order ordained by a rational personal being, and hence there was no conviction that rational personal beings would be able to spell out in their lesser earthly languages the divine code of laws which he had decreed aforetime.
The Taoistsindeed, would have scorned such an idea as being too naïve for the subtlety and complexity of the universe as they intuited it. The contributions of the Ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians in the areas of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine had entered and shaped Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquitywhereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes.
The ancient people who were considered the first scientists may have thought of themselves as natural philosophersas practitioners of a skilled profession for example, physiciansor as followers of a religious tradition for example, temple healers. The earliest Greek philosophers, doctoral full history scientific thesis, known as the pre-Socratics[73] provided competing answers to the question found in the myths of their neighbors: "How did the ordered cosmos in which we live come to be?
For example, that land floats on water and that earthquakes are caused by the agitation of the water upon which the land floats, rather than the god Poseidon.
This was greatly expanded on by his pupil Democritus and later Epicurus.
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The history of science is full of great works that have marked a turning point in the development of a branch of knowledge, and in which the proposals for a new theoretical frame of reference or a new systematization of the known facts were preceded by an extensive historical introduction consisting in the evolution of the topic up to that The Kellogg Marketing doctoral program provides rigorous training in the skills required for success as a world-class marketing researcher. This is achieved via coursework, close collaboration with faculty, and intellectual exchange in a department known for its research culture A thesis or paper, reporting substantive and original research, is required for the MA. The MA paper or thesis is written with the guidance of a committee of three members of the faculty. The final examination for the Master's degree is an oral examination, administered by the faculty committee
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